Testing the Psychometric Properties of the Profile of Emotional Competence (PEC) with Athletes
Implications for Athlete Leadership Research
Keywords:
factorial validity, measurement, sport psychology, trait emotional intelligenceAbstract
The examination of emotional competence in relation to sport leadership has centered on the coach. However, anecdotal and empirical evidence suggests that emotional competence is an important construct for researchers to consider among athletes given the central leadership roles they assume on their teams. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to assess the construct validity of the Profile of Emotional Competence (PEC; Brasseur et al., 2013)—a trait emotional competence measure that conceptually aligns with leadership development theory (i.e., intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies). The results of the present study did not support the 10-factor structure of the PEC with a sample of athletes. Further psychometric evaluations of the PEC are required to build a comprehensive understanding of its construct validity in sport contexts, particularly with an athlete population. We encourage researchers to continue such efforts and recommend that, at present, the PEC be used with caution in athlete leadership and sport psychology research.
References
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Aouani, H., Slimani, M., Bragazzi, N. L., Hamrouni, S., Elloumi, M. (2019). A preliminary validation of the Arabic version of the “Profile of Emotional Competence” questionnaire among Tunisian adolescent athletes and nonathletes: Insights and implications for sports psychology. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 12, 155-167. https://doi.org/10.2147/prbm.s188481
Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2009). Exploratory structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling, 16(3), 397-438. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510903008204
Barlow, A., & Banks, A. P. (2014). Using emotional intelligence in coaching high-performance athletes: A randomized controlled trial. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 7(2), 132-139. https://doi.org/10.1080/17521882.2014.939679
Beauchamp, M. R., Jackson, B., & Loughead, T. M. (2019). Leadership in physical activity contexts. In T. S. Horn & A. L. Smith (Eds.), Advances in sport and exercise psychology (4th ed., pp. 151-170). Human Kinetics.
Benson, A. J., & Eys, M. (2017). Understanding the consequences of newcomer integration processes: The Sport Team Socialization Tactics Questionnaire. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 39(1), 13-28. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2016-0182
Brasseur, S., Grégoire, J., Bourdu, R., & Mikolajczak, M. (2013). The Profile of Emotional Competence (PEC): Development and validation of a self-reported measure that fits dimensions of emotional competence theory. PLoS ONE, 8(5), e62635. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062635
Brearley, M. (2015). The art of captaincy. Pan Books.
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1992). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Sociological Methods & Research, 21(2), 230-258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124192021002005
Callow, N., Smith, M., Hardy, L., Arthur, C. A., & Hardy, J. (2009). Measurement of transformational leadership and its relationship with team cohesion and performance level. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21(4), 395-412. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200903204754
Chan, J. T., & Mallett, C. J. (2011). The value of emotional intelligence for high performance coaching. International Journal of Sport Science & Coaching, 6(3), 315-328. https://doi.org/10.1260/1747-9541.6.3.315
Côté, S., Lopes, P. N., Salovey, P., & Miners, C. T. H. (2010). Emotional intelligence and leadership emergence in small groups. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(3), 496-508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.03.012
Cotterill, S. T., & Fransen, K. (2016). Athlete leadership in sport teams: Current understanding and future directions. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 9(1), 116-133. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984x.2015.1124443
DiStefano, C., & Motl, R. W. (2006). Further investigating method effects associated with negatively worded items on self-report surveys. Structural Equation Modeling, 13(3), 440-464. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1303_6
Duguay, A. M., Loughead, T. M., & Cook, J. M. (2019). Athlete leadership as a shared process: Using a social network approach to examine athlete leadership in competitive female youth soccer teams. The Sport Psychologist, 33(3), 189-202. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2018-0019
Duguay, A. M., Loughead, T. M., & Munroe-Chandler, K. J. (2018). Investigating the importance of athlete leadership behaviors and the impact of leader tenure. Journal of Sport Behavior, 41(2), 129-147.
Duguay, A. M., Loughead, T. M., & Munroe-Chandler, K. J. (2016). The development, implementation, and evaluation of an athlete leadership development program with female varsity athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 30(2), 154-166. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2015-0050
Dupuis, M., Bloom, G. A., & Loughead, T. M. (2006). Team captains’ perceptions of athlete leadership. Journal of Sport Behavior, 29(1), 60-78.
George, J. M. (2000). Emotions and leadership: The role of emotional intelligence. Human Relations, 53(8), 1027-1055. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726700538001
Goleman, D. (1998). What makes a leader? Harvard Business Review, 76, 93-102.
Hagger, M. S., & Chatzisarantis, N. L. D. (2009). Assumptions in research in sport and exercise psychology. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(5), 511-519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.01.004
Hanin, Y. L. (2007). Emotions in sport: Current issues and perspectives. In G. Tenenbaum & R. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (3rd ed., pp. 31-58). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Harms, P. D., & Credé, M. (2010). Emotional intelligence and transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analysis. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 17(1), 5-17. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051809350894
Hoffmann, M. D., & Loughead, T. M. (2019). Preliminary development of a questionnaire to assess peer athlete mentoring functions: The Athlete Mentoring Questionnaire (AMQ). Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 23(1), 10-25. https://doi.org/10.1080/1091367x.2018.1479708
Hong, Y., Catano, V. M., Liao, H. (2011). Leadership emergence: the role of emotional intelligence and motivation to lead. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 32, 320-343. doi:10.1108/01437731111134625
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Imholte, P. D., Blanton, J. E., & McAlarnen, M. M. (2019). Fun, failure, and fulfillment: A case-study approach to informal athlete leadership in minor league baseball. The Sport Psychologist, 33(3), 177-188. https://doi.org/10.1080/1091367x.2017.1405811
In’nami, Y., & Koizumi, R. (2013). Structural equation modeling in educational research: A primer. In M. S. Khine (Ed.), Application of structural equation modeling in educational research and practice (pp. 23-54). Sense Publishers.
Kim, H., & Kim, T. (2017). Emotional intelligence and transformational leadership: A review of empirical studies. Human Resource Development Review, 16(4), 377-393. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484317729262
Laborde, S., Dosseville, F., & Allen, M. S. (2016). Emotional intelligence in sport and exercise: A systematic review. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 26(8), 862-874. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12510
Laborde, S., & Mosley, E. (2019). Emotional intelligence. In D. Hackfort, R. J. Schinke, & B. Strauss (Eds.), Dictionary of Sport Psychology: Sport, Exercise, and Performing Arts (p. 92). Academic Press.
Laborde, S., Mosley, E., Ackermann, S., Mrsic, A., & Dosseville, F. (2018). Emotional intelligence in sports and physical activity: An intervention focus. In K. V. Keefer, J. D. A. Parker, & D. H. Saklofske (Eds.), Emotional intelligence in education: Integrating research with practice (pp. 289-320). Springer International Publishing.
Lane, A. M. (2012). How can we measure what we cannot see? Measurement issues in sport psychology. Measurement and Control, 45(6), 187-190. https://doi.org/10.1177/002029401204500605
Lane, A. M., Meyer, B. B., Davonport, T. J., Davies, K. A., Thelwell, R., Gill, G. S., Diehl, C. D. P., Wilson, M., & Weston, N. (2009). Validity of the emotional intelligence scale for use in sport. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 8, 289-295.
Lee, Y. H., & Chelladurai, P. (2018). Emotional intelligence, emotional labor, coach burnout, job satisfaction, and turnover intention in sport leadership. European Sport Management Quarterly, 18(4), 393-412. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2017.1406971
Loughead, T. M. (2017). Athlete leadership: A review of the theoretical, measurement, and empirical literature. Current Opinion in Psychology, 16, 58-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.04.014
Magrum, E. D., Waller, S., Campbell, S., & Schempp, P. G. (2019). Emotional intelligence in sport: A ten-year review (2008-2018). International Journal of Coaching Science, 13(2), 3-32.
Marsh, H. W. (2007). Application of confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling in sport and exercise psychology. In G. Tenenbaum & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (3rd ed., pp. 774-798). John Wiley & Sons.
Marsh, H. W., Morin, A. J. S., Parker, P. D., & Kaur, G. (2014). Exploratory structural equation modeling: An integration of the best features of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 10(1), 85-110. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032813-153700
Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2004). Emotional intelligence: Theory, findings, and implications. Psychological Inquiry, 15(3), 197-215. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1503_02
Mikolajczak, M. (2009). Going beyond the ability-trait debate: The three-level model of emotional intelligence. Electronic Journal of Applied Psychology, 5(2), 25-31. https://doi.org/10.7790/ejap.v5i2.175
Mikolajczak, M., Quoidbach, J., Kotsou, I., Nélis, D. (2009). Les competences émotionnelles. Dunod.
Muthén, L. K. & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2017). Mplus user’s guide (8th ed.). Muthén & Muthén.
Perera, H. N. (2015). The internal structure of responses to the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire – Short Form: An exploratory structural equation modeling approach. Journal of Personality Assessment, 97(4), 411-423. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2015.1014042
Perry, J. L., Nicholls, A. R., Clough, P. J., & Crust, L. (2015). Assessing model fit: Caveats and recommendations for confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory structural equation modeling. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 19(1), 12-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/1091367x.2014.952370
Petrides, K. V., & Furnham, A. (2001). Trait emotional intelligence: Psychometric investigation with references to established trait taxonomies. European Journal of Personality, 15(6), 425-448. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.416
Santos, F., Strachan, L., Gould, D., Pereira, P., & Machado, C. (2019). The role of team captains in integrating positive teammate psychological development in high-performance sport. The Sport Psychologist, 33(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2017-0135
Smith, G., & Manthorp, N. (2009). A captain’s diary. Jonathan Ball.
Stanimirovic, R., & Hanrahan, S. (2012). Examining the dimensional structure and factorial validity of the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory in a sample of male athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13(1), 44-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.07.009
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Pearson.
Tamminen, K. A., & Crocker, P. R. E. (2013). “I control my own emotions for the sake of the team”: Emotional self-regulation and interpersonal emotion regulation among female high-performance curlers. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 14(5), 737-747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.05.002
Thelwell, R. C., Lane, A. M., Weston, N. J. V., & Greenlees, I. A. (2008). Examining relationships between emotional intelligence and coaching efficacy. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6(2), 224-235. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197x.2008.9671863
van Sonderen, E., Sanderman, R., & Coyne, J. C. (2013). Ineffectiveness of reverse wording of questionnaire items: Let’s learn from cows in the rain. PLoS ONE, 8(7), e68967. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0068967
Vaughan, R., & Laborde, S. (2018). Psychometrics of the emotional intelligence scale in elite, amateur, and non-athletes. Measurement in Physical and Exercise Science, 22(2), 177-189. https://doi.org/10.1080/1091367x.2017.1405811
Voelker, D. K., Gould, D., & Crawford, M. J. (2011). Understanding the experience of high school sport captains. The Sport Psychologist, 25(1), 47-66. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.25.1.47
Walter, F., Cole, M. S., & Humphrey, R. H. (2011). Emotional intelligence: Sine qua non of leadership or folderol? Academy of Management Perspectives, 25(1), 45-59. https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.25.1.45
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2022-02-13
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