Testing a Measure of Perceived Sport Control in Student Athletes
Keywords:
perceived control, student athletes, sport performance, measurementAbstract
Perceived control is a psychological construct related to motivation, performance, and wellbeing. Perceived control has been studied in sport settings; however, this study considers a domain-specific perceived control measure related to athletes' sport performance. In two studies, we tested a novel domain-specific measure of perceived control over sport performance (Perceived Sport Control) adapted from Perry et al.’s (2001) perceived academic control scale. In Study 1, we employed an exploratory factor analysis to test the structure of the perceived sport control measure given its novelty in the sport domain, examined the internal reliability of the measure and how athletes’ perceived sport control and academic control related to each other and demographic variables including age, year of sport eligibility, year of academic program, and hours per week training in their sport. In Study 2, we employed a confirmatory factor analysis to test the PSC measure with a larger sample based on Study 1 results. Study 1 data was collected from a Canadian sample of currently competing university (USports) athletes (N = 74) and Study 2 data was collected from a sample of Canadian and USA postsecondary athletes (N = 200). Study 1 findings supported a two-factor construct for perceived sport control reflecting action- and cognitive-based aspects of control. Factor 1 (action-based Influence) was positively associated with age and Factor 2 (cognitive-based Influence) was positively associated with perceived academic control. In Study 2, a CFA supported the two-factor PSC measure (RMSEA = .055, CFI = .98, TLI = .96, SRMR = .042) and across both studies, the two-factor measure was internally consistent. The universal application of the perceived sport control measure for understanding athletes' perceived control experiences in sport performance and across sport settings, as well as the study implications for sport research are discussed.
References
Agarwal, A., Mulani, C., Mehta, S., Kaur, M., & Munshi, C. (2018). A study on well-being, locus of control, gender and sports. Indian Journal of Mental Health, 5(1), 18-23.
Anshel, M. H., & Kaissidis, A. N. (1997). Coping style and situational appraisals as predictors of coping strategies following stressful events in sport as a function of gender and skill level. British Journal of Psychology, 88(2), 263-276. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1997.tb02634.x
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
Bandura, A. (1998). Health promotion from the perspective of social cognitive theory. Psychology and Health, 13, 623-649.
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238
Chipperfield, J. G., Hamm, J. M., Perry, R. P., & Ruthig, J. C. (2017). Perspectives on studying perceived control in the 21st century. In M. D. Robinson & M. Eid (Eds.), The happy mind: Cognitive contributions to well-being. Springer.
Costello, A. B., & Osborne, J. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 10(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.7275/jyj1-4868
Cowden, R. G., Crust, L., Tibbert, S. J., & Jackman, P. C. (2020). Mental toughness development and training in sport. In M. Bertollo, E. Filho, & P. Terry (Eds)., Advancements in mental skills training (pp. 28-43). Routledge.
Demo, G. (2013). Validation of a CRM scale for the B2C market: exploratory factor analysis. Brazilian Journal of Operations & Production Management, 10(2), 67-78. Retrieved from https://bjopm.emnuvens.com.br/bjopm/article/view/V10N2A7
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement errors. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 39-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800
Gucciardi, D. F., Peeling, P., Ducker, K. J., & Dawson, B. (2016). When the going gets tough: Mental toughness and its relationship with behavioural perseverance. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 19(1), 81-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2014.12.005
Hayton, J. C., Allen, D. G., & Scarpello, V. (2004). Factor retention decisions in exploratory factor analysis: A tutorial on parallel analysis. Organizational research methods, 7(2), 191-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428104263675
Holden, S. L., Forester, B. E., Williford, H. N., & Reilly, E. (2019). Sport locus of control and perceived stress among college student-athletes. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(16), 2823, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16162823
Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. (2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 6, 53–60.
Jordet, G., Gemser, M. E., & Lemmink, K. P. (2006). Perceived control and anxiety. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 37, 281-298.
Kaiseler, M., Polman, R. C., & Nicholls, A. R. (2012). Gender differences in appraisal and coping: An examination of the situational and dispositional hypothesis. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 43(1), 1-14.
Kowalski, K. C., Crocker, P. R. E., Hoar, S. D., & Niefer, C. B. (2005). Adolescents' control beliefs and coping with stress in sport. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 36(4), 257-272.
Kuhl, J. (1985). Volitional mediators of cognition-behavior consistency: Self-regulatory processes and action versus state orientation. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Action control: From cognition to behavior (pp. 101-128). Springer.
Mascret, N., Elliot, A. J., & Cury, F. (2015). Extending the 3 x 2 achievement goal model to the sport domain: The 3 x 2 Achievement Goal Questionnaire for Sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 17, 7-14.
Myers, N. D., Ahn, S., & Jin, Y. (2011). Sample size and power estimates for a confirmatory factor analytic model in exercise and sport: A Monte Carlo approach. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 82(3), 412–442. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2011.10599773
Norris, M., & Lecavalier, L. (2010). Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in developmental disability psychological research. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(1), 8-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0816-2
Parker, P. C., Perry, R. P., Hamm, J. M., Chipperfield, J. G., & Hladkyj, S. (2016). Enhancing the academic success of competitive student athletes using a motivation treatment intervention (Attributional Retraining). Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 26, 113-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2016.06.008
Parker, P. C., Perry, R. P., Hamm, J. M., Chipperfield, J. G., Pekrun, R., Dryden, R. P., Daniels, L. M., & Tze, V. M. (2021). A motivation perspective on achievement appraisals, emotions, and performance in an online learning environment. International Journal of Educational Research, 108, 101772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2021.101772
Perry, R. P., Hladkyj, S., Pekrun, R. H., & Pelletier, S. (2001). Action control and perceived control in the academic achievement of college students: A longitudinal field study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 776-789. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.93.4.776
Perry, R. P., Hladkyj, S., Pekrun, R. H., Clifton, R. A., & Chipperfield, J. G. (2005). Perceived academic control and failure in college students: A three-year study of scholastic attainment. Research in Higher Education, 46(5), 535-569. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-005-3364-4
Respondek, L., Seufert, T., Hamm, J. M., & Nett, U. E. (2020). Linking changes in perceived academic control to university dropout and university grades: A longitudinal approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(5), 987-1002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu0000388
Respondek, L., Seufert, T., Stupnisky, R., & Nett, U. E. (2017). Perceived academic control and academic emotions predict undergraduate university student success: Examining effects on dropout intention and achievement. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(243). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00243
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. Guilford Publications.
Sas-Nowosielski, K., Grabara, M., & Hadzik, A. (2013). Perceived control variables and leisure-time physical activity of adults. Trends in Sport Sciences, 20(4), 197-203.
Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. W. H. Freeman.
Skinner, E. A. (2016). Seven guideposts to the study of perceived control across the lifespan. Perceived control: Theory, research, and practice in the first, 50(2), 309-340. Retrieved from: https://perpus.univpancasila.ac.id/repository/EBUPT190010.pdf
Skinner, E. A., Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Connell, J. P., Eccles, J. S., & Wellborn, J. G. (1998). Individual differences and the development of perceived control. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, i-231. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1166220
Steiger, J. H. (1990). Structural model evaluation and modification: An interval estimation approach. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25(2), 173-180. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr2502_4
Stupnisky, R. H., Renaud, R. D., Perry, R. P., Ruthig, J. C., Haynes, T. L., & Clifton, R. A. (2007). Comparing self-esteem and perceived control as predictors of first-year college students’ academic achievement. Social Psychology of Education, 10(3), 303-330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-007-9020-4
Taber, K. S. (2018). The use of Cronbach’s alpha when developing and reporting research instruments in science education. Research in Science Education, 48, 1273-1296.
Tudor, M. L., & Ridpath, B. D. (2018). Does the perceived motivational climate significantly predict academic and/or athletic motivation among NCAA Division I college athletes. Journal of Contemporary Athletics, 12(4), 291-307.
USports (2021). Retrieved from: https://usports.ca/hq/covid-19-resources/covid-19-information
Van Griethuijsen, R. A., van Eijck, M. W., Haste, H., Den Brok, P. J., Skinner, N. C., Mansour, N., ... & BouJaoude, S. (2015). Global patterns in students’ views of science and interest in science. Research in Science Education, 45, 581-603. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-014-9438-6
Williams, B., Onsman, A., & Brown, T. (2010). Exploratory factor analysis: A five-step guide for novices. Australasian Journal of Paramedicine, 8, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.33151/ajp.8.3.93
