Sexual Prejudice, Traditional Masculinity Ideology, and Athletic Identity in College Students
Keywords:
College Athletics, LGBTQ , Homophobia, HeterosexismAbstract
We examined current levels of sexual prejudice among US college athletes and non-athletes (N = 451), accounting for the impact of traditional masculinity ideology and exclusivity of athletic identity. While no significant multivariate gender x athlete status interaction was found on sexual prejudice, significant main effects occurred for both gender (p < .001, ηp2 = .10) and athlete status (p = .28, ηp2 = .04). Men reported significantly greater sexual prejudice than women and athletes reported significantly greater sexual prejudice than non-athletes. When controlling for traditional masculinity ideology, gender differences were eliminated (p = .11, ηp2 = .01). Similarly, when controlling for athletic identity, significant differences between athletes and non-athletes were no longer present (p = .13, ηp2 = .01).
References
Amodeo, A.L., Antuoni, S., Claysset, M., & Esposito, C. (2020). Traditional male role norms and sexual prejudice in sport
organizations: A focus on Italian sport directors and coaches. Social Sciences, 9, 218–229.
https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci9120218
Anderson, A. R., & Mowatt, R. A. (2013). Heterosexism in campus recreational clubsports: An exploratory investigation
into attitudes towards gay men and lesbians. Recreational Sports Journal, 37, 106–122.
https://doi.org/10.1123/rsj.37.2.106
Anderson, E. (2002). Openly gay athletes: Contesting hegemonic masculinity in a homophobic environment. Gender &
Society, 16(6), 860–877. https://doi.org/10.1117/089124302237892
Anderson, E. (2005). In the game: Gay athletes and the cult of masculinity. New York: State University of New York Press.
Anderson, E. (2011a). The rise and fall of western homohysteria. Journal of Feminist Scholarship, 1, 80–94.
https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/jfs/vol1/iss1/16
Anderson, E. (2011b). Updating the outcome: Gay athletes, straight teams, and coming out in educationally based sports
teams. Gender & Society, 25, 250–268. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243210396872
Barber, H., & Krane, V. (2007). Creating a positive climate for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youths. Journal of
Physical Education, Recreation, & Dance, 78(7), 6–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2007.10598047
Beamon, K. (2012). “I’m a baller”: Athletic identity foreclosure among African-American former student-athletes. Journal
of African American Studies, 16, 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12111-012-9211-9
Brewer, B. W., & Cornelius, A. E. (2001). Norms and factorial invariance of the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale.
Academic Athletic Journal, 15, 103–113.
Brewer, B. W., Van Raalte, J. L., & Linder, D. E. (1993). Athletic identity: Hercules’ muscle or Achilles heel?. International
Journal of Sport Psychology, 24, 237–254.
Bush, A., Anderson, E., & Carr, S. (2012). The declining existence of men's homophobia in British sport. Journal for the
Study of Sports and Athletes in Education, 6(1), 107–120. https://doi.org/10.1179/ssa.2012.6.1.107
Coakley, J. (2007). Sport in society: Issues and controversies (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum.
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159.https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155
Coker-Cranney, A., Watson, J. C. II, Bernstein, M., Voelker, D. K., & Coakley, J. (2018). How far is too far? Understanding
identity and overconformity in collegiate wrestlers. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 10(1), 92–116.
https://doi.org/1080/2159676X.2017.1372798
Connell, R. W. (1990). An iron man: The body and some contradictions of hegemonic masculinity. In M. A. Messner and
D. F. Sabo, Sport, men, and the gender order: Critical feminist perspectives (pp. 83–96). Human Kinetics.
Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005). Hegemonic masculinity: Rethinking the concept. Gender and Society, 19(6),
–859.
Cragun, R. T., & Sumerau, E. (2015). The last bastion of sexual and gender prejudice? Sexualities, race, gender, religiosity,
and spirituality in the examination of prejudice towards sexual and gender minorities. Journal of Sex Research, 52(7),
–834. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2014.925534
Cunningham, G. B. (2012). A multilevel model for understanding the experiences of LBGT sport participants. Journal for
the Study of Sports and Athletes in Education, 6(1), 5-20.https://doi.org/10.1179/ssa.2012.6.1.5
Cunningham, G. B., & Pickett, A. C. (2018). Trans prejudice in sport: Differences from LGB prejudice, the influence and
gender, and changes over time. Sex Roles, 28, 220–227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0791-6
Curry, T. J., & Weiss, O. (1989). Sport identity and motivation for sport participation: A comparison between American
college athletes and Austrian sport club members. Sociology of Sport Journal, 6, 257–268.
https://doi.org/10.1123/SSJ.6.3.257
Denison, E., Bevan, N., & Jeanes, R. (2020). Reviewing evidence of LGBTQ+ discrimination and exclusion in sport. Sport
Management Review, 24(3), 389–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2020.09.003
Denison, E., Faulkner, N., Jeanes, R., & Toole, D. (2021). Relationships between attitudes and norms with homophobic
language use in male team sports. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 24, 499–504.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2020.10.018
Ellis, P. D. (2010). The essential guide to effect sizes: Statistical power, meta-analysis, and the interpretation of research results.
Cambridge University Press.
Fox, K. R. (1987). Physical self-perceptions and exercise involvement. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Arizona State
University.
Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network (2019, November). Safe space kit: A guide to supporting lesbian, gay,
bisexual, transgender, and queer students in your school.
Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network (2021a). Game plan for administrators and athletic directors.
Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network. (2021b). Game plan for coaches: Creating safe and inclusive teams for
LGBTQ+ athletes.https://www.glsen.org/sites/default/files/ctg/GLSEN_CTG2021_Coaches_Guide.pdf
Gill, D. L., & Deeter, T. E. (1988). Development of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire. Research Quarterly for Exercise
and Sport, 59, 191–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1988.10605504
Gill, D. L., Morrow, R. G., Collins, K. E., Lucey, A. B., & Schultz, A. M. (2006). Attitudes and sexual prejudice in sport.
Journal of Sport Management, 20, 554–564. https://doi.org/10.1123/JSM.20.4.554
Glotfelter, M. A., & Anderson, V. N. (2017). Relationships between gender self-esteem, sexual prejudice, and trans
prejudice in cisgender heterosexual college students. International Journal of Transgenderism, 18(2), 182–198.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2016.1274932
Graupensperger, S. A., Benson, A. J., & Evans, M. B. (2018). Everyone else is doing it: The association between social
identity and susceptibility to peer influence in NCAA athletes. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 40, 117–127.
Halbrook, M. K., Watson, J. C., & Voelker, D. K. (2018). High school coaches’ experiences with openly lesbian, gay, and
bisexual athletes. Journal of Homosexuality, 66, 838–856. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2017.1423222
Harter, S. (1990). Causes, correlates and the functional role of global self-worth: A life-span perspective. In R. J. Sternberg
and J. Kolligian (Eds.), Competence considered (pp. 67–97). Yale University Press.
Herek, G. M. (2000). The psychology of sexual prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(1), 19–22.
Herek, G. M., & McLemore, K. A. (2011). The attitudes toward Lesbians and Gay Men (ATLG) scale. In T. D. Fisher, C.
M. David, W. L. Yarber, & S. L. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of sexuality-related measures (3rd ed., pp. 415–417). Taylor &
Francis.
Hilliard, R. C., Blom, L., Hankemeier, D., & Bolin, J. (2017). Exploring the relationship between athletic identity and beliefs
about rehabilitation overadherence in college athletes. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, 26, 208–220.
https://doi.org/10.1123/jsr.2015-0134
Hoffman, J. (2021). Lia Thomas - and all trans athletes - deserve to thrive. Athlete Ally. https://www.athleteally.org/lia-thomas-
and-all-trans-athletes-deserve-to-thrive/
Horton, R. S., & Mack, D. E. (2000). Athletic identity in marathon runners: Functional focus or dysfunctional
commitment? Journal of Sport Behavior, 23(2), 101–119.
Houle, J. L. W., Brewer, B. W., & Kluck, A. S. (2010). Developmental trends in athletic identity: A two-part retrospective
study. Journal of Sport Behavior, 33(2), 146–159.
JED Foundation. (2021, October). Proud & thriving report and framework: Supporting the mental health of LGBTQ+ high
school, college, and university students. https://jedfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Proud-Thriving-Report-and-Framework-10.2021.pdf
Kaplan, D., Rosenmann, A., & Shuhendler, S. (2016). What about nontraditional masculinities? Toward a quantitative model
of therapeutic new masculinity ideology. Men and Masculinities, 20(4), 393-426.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X16634797
Kauer, K. J., & Krane, V. (2006). “Scary dykes” and “feminine queens”: Stereotypes and female collegiate athletes. Women
in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 15(1), 42–55.
Krane, V. (1997). Homonegativism experienced by lesbian collegiate athletes. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal,
(2), 165–188.
Krane, V. (2001). We can be athletic and feminine, but do we want to? Challenging hegemonic femininity in women’s sport.
Quest, 53, 115-133.
Krane, V., Choi, P. Y. L., Baird, S. M., Aimar, C. M., & Kauer, K. J. (2004). Living the paradox: Female athletes negotiate
femininity and muscularity. Sex Roles, 50, 315-329. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000018888.48437.4f
Krane, V. (2016). Inclusion to exclusion: Sport for LGBT athletes. In R. Schinke, K. McGannon, and B. Smith (Eds.),
International handbook in sport psychology (pp. 238–247). Routledge.
Kroshus, E., & Davoren, A. K. (2016). Mental health and substance use of sexual minority college athletes. Journal of
American College Health, 64(5), 371–379. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2016.1158179
Ladda, S. (2016). Creating respectful and inclusive environments: The role of physical educators and coaches. Journal of
Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 87(3), 3–4. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2016.1131536
Levant, R. F., Hall, R. J., & Rankin, T. J. (2013). Male Role Norms Inventory-Short Form (MRNI-SF): Development,
confirmatory factor analytic investigation of structure and measurement invariance across gender. Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 60(2), 228–238. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031545
Levant, R. F., Smalley, K. B., Aupont, M., House, A., Richmond, K., & Noronha, D. (2007). Initial validation of the Male Role
Norms Inventory-Revised. Journal of Men’s Studies, 15, 85–100. https://doi.org/10.3149/jms.1501.83
Magrath, R., Batten, J., Anderson, E., & White, A J. (2021). Five-year cohort study of White British male student athletes:
Attitudes towards gay men. Journal for the Study of Sports and Athletics in Education. Advanced online publication.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19357397.2021.1989277
Mann, M., & Krane, V. (2018). Inclusion and normalization of queer identities in women’s college sport. Women in Sport
and Physical Activity Journal, 26, 76–88. https://doi.org/10.1123/wspaj.2017-0033.
Marsden, A. D., & Barnett, M. D. (2020). The role of empathy in the relationship between social political ideology and
sexual prejudice in heterosexual college students in the U.S. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49, 1853–1861.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01545-5
Melton, E. N., & Cunningham, G. B. (2014). Examining the workplace experiences of sport employees who are LGBT: A
social categorization perspective. Journal of Sport Management, 28, 21–33. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2011-0157.
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues
and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674
Miller, K. E. (2009). Sport-related identities and the “toxic jock.” Journal of Sport Behavior, 32(1), 69–91.
Mullin, E. M. (2016). Heterosexist attitudes and team cohesion in women’s collegiate athletics. Journal of Intercollegiate Sport,
, 90–105. https://doi.org/10.1123/jis.2015-0009
Mullin, E. M., & Cook, S. (2021). Collegiate coach attitudes towards lesbians and gay men. International Journal of Sports
Science & Coaching, 16(3), 519–527. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747954120977130
Nasco, S. A., & Webb, W. M. (2006). Towards an expanded measure of athletic identity: The inclusion of public and private
dimensions. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 28, 434–453. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.28.4.434
National Center for Lesbian Rights. (2016). “All 50”: Transgender-inclusive high school sports and activities policy and
education project. https://www.nclrights.org/wpcontent/uploads/2016/05/All-50-Model-High-School-Policy.pdf
National Collegiate Athletic Association. (2021). NCAA demographic database [data visualization dashboard].
https://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/research/ncaa-demographics-database
Neville, A., & Lane, A. (2007). Why self-report “Likert” scale data should not be log-transformed. Journal of Sport Sciences,
(1), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410601111183
O’Brien, K. S., Shovelton, H., & Latner, J. D. (2013). Homophobia in physical education and sport: The role of
physical/sporting identity and attributes, authoritarian aggression, and social dominance orientation. International
Journal of Psychology, 48(5), 891–899. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207594.2012.713107
Oswalt, S. B., & Vargas, T. M. (2013). How safe is the playing field? Collegiate coaches’ attitudes towards gay, lesbian, and
bisexual individuals. Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics, 16(1), 120–132.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2012.690407
Pariera, K., Brody, E., & Scott, D. T. (2021). Now that they’re out: Experiences of college athletics teams with openly
LGBTQ players. Journal of Homosexuality, 68(5), 733–751. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2019.1661727
Rankin, S., & Merson, D. (2012). Campus Pride 2012 LGBTQ College Athlete National Report. Charlotte, NC: Campus Pride.
Rankin, S., & Weber, G. (2014). Harassment and discrimination - LGBTQ student-athletes. In G. T. Brown (Ed.), Mind,
body, and sport: Understanding and supporting student-athlete mental wellness (pp 78–83). NCAA.
Roper, E. A., & Halloran, E. (2007). Attitudes toward gay men and lesbians among heterosexual male and female student-
athletes. Sex Roles, 57, 919–928. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-077-9323-0.
Russell, W. D. (2021). The role of athletic identity on perceived social support on college female athletes’ burnout. Journal
of Sport Behavior, 44(1), 99–119.
Smith, A. B., & Hardin, R. (2018). Female student-athletes’ transition out of college competition. Journal of Amateur Sport,
(2), 61-86.
Southall, R. M., Anderson, E. D., Nagel, M. S., Polite, F. G., & Southall, C. (2011). An investigation of ethnicity as a
variable related to US male college athletes’ sexual orientation and behaviors. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 34(2), 293–
https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2010.495409
Southall, R. M., Nagel, M. S., Anderson, E. D., Polite, F. G., & Southall, C. (2009). An investigation of male college
athletes’ attitudes towards sexual orientation. Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics, 2009 Special Issue, 62–77.
Steinfeldt, M., & Steinfeldt, J. A. (2012). Athletic identity and conformity to masculine norms among college football
players. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 24, 115–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2011.603405
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Pearson.
Trevor Project. (2021). National survey on LGBTQ youth mental health 2021.
https://www.thetrevorproject.org/survey-2021/?section=SuicideMentalHealth
Waldron, J. J., & Krane, V. (2005). Whatever it takes: Health compromising behaviors in female athletes. Quest, 57, 315–
Walker, N. A. & Sartore-Baldwin, M. (2013). Hegemonic masculinity and the institutionalized bias toward women in
men’s collegiate basketball: What do men think? Journal of Sport Management, 27(4), 303-315.
https://doi.org/ 10.1123/jsm.27.4.303
Walsh, J. A., Blom, L. C., Bolin, J., & Bowman, S. (2021). Factors relating to college football players’ conformity to traditional
masculine norms. Journal of Men’s Studies, 29(3), 297–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/10608265211004557
Wolf-Wendel, L. E., Toma, J. D., & Morphew, C. C. (2001). How much difference is too much difference? Perceptions of
gay men and lesbians in intercollegiate athletics. Journal of College Student Development, 42(5), 465–479.
Worthen, M. G. F., Tanzilli, A., Caristo, C., & Lingiardi, V. (2019). Social contact, social distancing, and attitudes toward
LGT individuals: A cross-cultural study of heterosexual college students in the United States, Italy, and Spain. Journal
of Homosexuality, 66(13), 1882–1908. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2018.1519302
