Differences in Narcissism and Aggression Between College Athletes and Non-Athletes
Keywords:
narcissism, vulnerable narcissism, aggression, collegiate athletesAbstract
The purpose of the current study was to explore differences in narcissistic tendencies between athletes and non-athletes, and to identify the moderating effect of athlete status on the relationship between narcissism and aggression. Participants in this study were college athletes (N = 117) from NCAA Division I and Division III programs, and non-athletes (N = 471) from the same institutions. Participants completed a questionnaire that assessed narcissistic grandiosity, narcissistic vulnerability, and general aggression. Independent samples t-tests revealed no significant differences between athletes and non-athletes in narcissistic grandiosity or vulnerability. Moderated regression analysis demonstrated that athlete status does not influence the relationship between narcissism and aggression, which was positive for both athletes and non-athletes. These findings contradict the stereotype that athletes are generally more narcissistic and support the relationship between narcissism and aggression that has been identified previously. Based on the findings, mental health and sport professionals would do well to be aware of the role narcissism may play in aggressive behaviors exhibited by their clients and players.
References
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Baker, J., Koz, D., Kungl, A.M., Fraser-Thomas, J., & Schorer, J. (2013). Staying at the top: Playing position and performance affect career length in professional sport. High Ability Studies, 24(1), 63–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/13598139.2012.738325
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Bredemeier, B. J., & Shields, D. L. (1984). Divergence in moral reasoning about sport and everyday life. Sociology of Sport Journal, 1(4), 348–357. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.1.4.348
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Cain, N. M., Pincus, A. L., & Ansell, E. B. (2008). Narcissism at the crossroads: Phenotypic description of pathological narcissism across clinical theory, social/personality psychology, and psychiatric diagnosis. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(4), 638–656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2007.09.006
Campbell, W. K., Bonacci, A. M., Shelton, J., Exline, J. J., & Bushman, B. J. (2004). Psychological entitlement: Interpersonal consequences and validation of a self-report measure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 83(1), 29–45. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa8301_04
Cratsley, K. (2016). Revisiting Freud and Kohut on narcissism. Theory & Psychology, 26, 333–359. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0959354316638181
Crosset, T. W., Benedict, J. R., & McDonald, M. A. (1995). Male student-athletes reported for sexual assault: A survey of campus police departments and judicial affairs offices. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 19(2), 126–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801296002002004
Dickinson, K. A., & Pincus, A. L. (2003). Interpersonal analysis of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. Journal of Personality Disorders, 17(3), 188–207. http://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.17.3.188.22146
Doty, J. (2006). Sports Build Character?! Journal of College and Character, 7(3), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.2202/1940-1639.1529
Dunn, J. G., & Dunn, J. C. (1999). Goal orientations, perceptions of aggression, and sportspersonship in elite male youth ice hockey players. The Sport Psychologist, 13(2), 183–200.
Elman, W., & McKelvie, S. (2003). Narcissism in football players: Stereotype or reality. Athletic Insight, 5(1), 38–46.
Emmons, R. A. (1984). Factor analysis and construct validity of the narcissistic personality inventory. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48(3), 291–300. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4803_11
Emmons, R. A. (1987). Narcissism: Theory and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(1), 11–17. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.1.11
Felson, R. B. (1993). The (somewhat) social self: How others affect self-appraisals. In J. M. Suls (Ed.), Psychological Perspectives on the Self, Vol. 4. The self in social perspective (pp. 1–26). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Feltz, D. L. (2007). Efficacy Belief in Sport: Research on Athletes Teams and Coaches. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 78(1), A2-3.
Fink, J. S. (2015). Female athletes, women’s sport, and the sport media commercial complex: Have we really “come a long way, baby”? Sport Management Review, 18(3), 331–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2014.05.001
Foster, J. D., & Campbell, W. K. (2007). Are there such things as “narcissists” in social psychology? A taxometric analysis of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(6), 1321–1332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.04.003
Foster, J. D., & Trimm, R. F. (2008). On Being Eager and Uninhibited: Narcissism and Approach–Avoidance Motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(7), 1004–1017. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208316688
Freud, S. (1953). Three essays on the theory of sexuality (1905). In The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume VII (1901-1905): A Case of Hysteria, Three Essays on Sexuality and Other Works (pp. 123–246).
Frintner, M. P., & Rubinson, L. (1993). Acquaintance rape: The influence of alcohol, fraternity membership, and sports team membership. Journal of Sex Education and Therapy, 19(4), 272–284. https://doi.org/10.1080/01614576.1993.11074089
Gabriel, M. T., Critelli, J. W., & Ee, J. S. (1994). Narcissistic illusions in self‐evaluations of intelligence and attractiveness. Journal of Personality, 62(1), 143–155. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1994.tb00798.x
Geukes, K., Mesagno, C., Hanrahan, S. J., & Kellmann, M. (2013). Activation of self-focus and self-presentation traits under private, mixed, and public pressure. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 35(1), 50–59. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.35.1.50
Hart, C. M., Ritchie, T. D., Hepper, E. G., & Gebauer, J. E. (2015). The Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding Short Form (BIDR-16). SAGE Open, 5(4), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015621113
Hays, K., Thomas, O., Maynard, I., & Bawden, M. (2009). The role of confidence in world-class sport performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27(11), 1185–1199. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410903089798
John, O. P., & Robins, R. W. (1994). Accuracy and bias in self-perception: Individual differences in self-enhancement and the role of narcissism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(1), 206-219. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.66.1.206
Jonason, P. K., Wee, S., Li, N. P., & Jackson, C. (2014). Occupational niches and the Dark Triad traits. Personality and Individual Differences, 69, 119–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.05.024
Kohut, H. (1972). Thoughts on narcissism and narcissistic rage. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 27(1), 360–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/00797308.1972.11822721
Krizan, Z., & Johar, O. (2015). Narcissistic rage revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108(5), 784–801. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000013
Kukla, A. (1972). Foundations of an attributional theory of performance. Psychological Review, 79(6), 454. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0033494
Kukla, A. (1974). Performance as a function of resultant achievement motivation (perceived ability) and perceived difficulty. Journal of Research in Personality, 7(4), 374–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(74)90059-2
Lannin, D. G., Guyll, M., Krizan, Z., Madon, S., & Cornish, M. (2014). When are grandiose and vulnerable narcissists least helpful? Personality and Individual Differences, 56, 127–132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.08.035
Lines, G. (2001). Villains, fools or heroes? Sports stars as role models for young people. Leisure Studies, 20(4), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/02614360110094661
Martin, T. G., Suh, Y. I., Williams, A. S., Locey, J., Ramirez, J., & Alea, M. (2016). Comparative Analysis of Female and Male Coverage on ESPN’s SportsCenter. 4(1), 14-22.
McCray, K. L. (2015). Intercollegiate Athletes and Sexual Violence: A Review of Literature and Recommendations for Future Study. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 16(4), 438–443. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838014537907
Meyer, W.U. (1987). Perceived ability and achievement-related behavior. In F. Halisch & J. Kuhl (Eds.), Motivation, intention, and volition (pp. 73–86). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
Miller, J. D., Widiger, T. A., & Campbell, W. K. (2010). Narcissistic personality disorder and the DSM-V. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119(4), 640–649. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019529
Parke, C. S. (2013). Module 5: Identifying and Addressing Outliers. Essential First Steps to Data Analysis: Scenario-Based Examples Using SPSS, 81–102.
Paulhus, D. L. (1998). Paulhus deception scales (PDS): The balanced inventory of desirable responding-7: User’s manual. North Tanawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
Piff, P. K. (2014). Wealth and the inflated self: Class, entitlement, and narcissism. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 40(1), 34–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213501699
Pincus, A. L., Ansell, E. B., Pimentel, C. A., Cain, N. M., Wright, A. G., & Levy, K. N. (2009). Initial construction and validation of the Pathological Narcissism Inventory. Psychological Assessment, 21(3), 365-379. doi: 10.1037/a0016530
Raskin, R., & Hall, C. S. (1981). The Narcissistic Personality Inventory: Alternative form reliability and further evidence of construct validity. Journal of Personality Assessment, 45(2), 159–162. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4502_10
Ronningstam, E. (2009). Narcissistic personality disorder: Facing DSM-V. Psychiatric Annals, 39(3), 111-121. http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20090301-09
Rosen, S., & Sanderson, A. (2001). Labour Markets in Professional Sports. The Economic Journal, 111(469), 47–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00598
Sage, G. H., Eitzen, D. S., & Beal, B. (2018). Sociology of North American Sport (11 edition). New York: Oxford University Press.
Sanna, L. J. (1992). Self-efficacy theory: Implications for social facilitation and social loafing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(5), 774-786. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.62.5.774.
Schoenleber, M., Roche, M. J., Wetzel, E., Pincus, A. L., & Roberts, B. W. (2015). Development of a brief version of the Pathological Narcissism Inventory. Psychological Assessment, 27(4), 1520–1526. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000158
Shaw, S., & Amis, J. (2001). Image and investment: Sponsorship and women’s sport. Journal of Sport Management, 15(3), 219–246. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.15.3.219
Silva, J. M. (1983). The Perceived Legitimacy of Rule Violating Behavior in Sport. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 5(4), 438-448. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsp.5.4.438
Sønderlund, A. L., O’Brien, K., Kremer, P., Rowland, B., De Groot, F., Staiger, P., … Miller, P. G. (2014). The association between sports participation, alcohol use and aggression and violence: A systematic review. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 17(1), 2–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2013.03.011
Trope, Y. (1979). Uncertainty-reducing properties of achievement tasks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(9), 1505-1518. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.9.1505
Vealey, R. S. (2009). Confidence in sport. Sport Psychology, 1, 43–52.
Wallace, H. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2002). The performance of narcissists rises and falls with perceived opportunity for glory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(5), 819–834. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.5.819
Watson, P. J. (2005). Complexity of narcissism and a continuum of self-esteem regulation. Personality Disorders, 336–338.
Wink, P. (1991). Two faces of narcissism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(4), 590–597. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.4.590
Woodman, T., Roberts, R., Hardy, L., Callow, N., & Rogers, C. H. (2011). There Is an “I” in TEAM: Narcissism and Social Loafing. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 82(2), 285–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2011.10599756
Zeigler‐Hill, V., Clark, C. B., & Pickard, J. D. (2008). Narcissistic Subtypes and Contingent Self-Esteem: Do All Narcissists Base Their Self-Esteem on the Same Domains? Journal of Personality, 76(4), 753–774. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00503.x
Babiss, L. A., & Gangwisch, J. E. (2009). Sports participation as a protective factor against depression and suicidal ideation in adolescents as mediated by self-esteem and social support. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 30(5), 376–384. doi: 10.1097/DBP.0b013e3181b33659
Baker, J., Koz, D., Kungl, A.M., Fraser-Thomas, J., & Schorer, J. (2013). Staying at the top: Playing position and performance affect career length in professional sport. High Ability Studies, 24(1), 63–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/13598139.2012.738325
Bowker, A. (2006). The relationship between sports participation and self-esteem during early adolescence. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 38(3), 214–229. https://doi.org/10.1037/cjbs2006009
Bredemeier, B. J., & Shields, D. L. (1984). Divergence in moral reasoning about sport and everyday life. Sociology of Sport Journal, 1(4), 348–357. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.1.4.348
Bryant, F. B., & Smith, B. D. (2001). Refining the Architecture of Aggression: A Measurement Model for the Buss–Perry Aggression Questionnaire. Journal of Research in Personality, 35(2), 138–167. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.2000.2302
Buss, A. H., & Perry, M. (1992). The aggression questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(3), 452. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.3.452
Cain, N. M., Pincus, A. L., & Ansell, E. B. (2008). Narcissism at the crossroads: Phenotypic description of pathological narcissism across clinical theory, social/personality psychology, and psychiatric diagnosis. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(4), 638–656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2007.09.006
Campbell, W. K., Bonacci, A. M., Shelton, J., Exline, J. J., & Bushman, B. J. (2004). Psychological entitlement: Interpersonal consequences and validation of a self-report measure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 83(1), 29–45. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa8301_04
Cratsley, K. (2016). Revisiting Freud and Kohut on narcissism. Theory & Psychology, 26, 333–359. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0959354316638181
Crosset, T. W., Benedict, J. R., & McDonald, M. A. (1995). Male student-athletes reported for sexual assault: A survey of campus police departments and judicial affairs offices. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 19(2), 126–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801296002002004
Dickinson, K. A., & Pincus, A. L. (2003). Interpersonal analysis of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. Journal of Personality Disorders, 17(3), 188–207. http://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.17.3.188.22146
Doty, J. (2006). Sports Build Character?! Journal of College and Character, 7(3), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.2202/1940-1639.1529
Dunn, J. G., & Dunn, J. C. (1999). Goal orientations, perceptions of aggression, and sportspersonship in elite male youth ice hockey players. The Sport Psychologist, 13(2), 183–200.
Elman, W., & McKelvie, S. (2003). Narcissism in football players: Stereotype or reality. Athletic Insight, 5(1), 38–46.
Emmons, R. A. (1984). Factor analysis and construct validity of the narcissistic personality inventory. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48(3), 291–300. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4803_11
Emmons, R. A. (1987). Narcissism: Theory and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(1), 11–17. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.1.11
Felson, R. B. (1993). The (somewhat) social self: How others affect self-appraisals. In J. M. Suls (Ed.), Psychological Perspectives on the Self, Vol. 4. The self in social perspective (pp. 1–26). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Feltz, D. L. (2007). Efficacy Belief in Sport: Research on Athletes Teams and Coaches. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 78(1), A2-3.
Fink, J. S. (2015). Female athletes, women’s sport, and the sport media commercial complex: Have we really “come a long way, baby”? Sport Management Review, 18(3), 331–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2014.05.001
Foster, J. D., & Campbell, W. K. (2007). Are there such things as “narcissists” in social psychology? A taxometric analysis of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(6), 1321–1332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.04.003
Foster, J. D., & Trimm, R. F. (2008). On Being Eager and Uninhibited: Narcissism and Approach–Avoidance Motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(7), 1004–1017. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208316688
Freud, S. (1953). Three essays on the theory of sexuality (1905). In The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume VII (1901-1905): A Case of Hysteria, Three Essays on Sexuality and Other Works (pp. 123–246).
Frintner, M. P., & Rubinson, L. (1993). Acquaintance rape: The influence of alcohol, fraternity membership, and sports team membership. Journal of Sex Education and Therapy, 19(4), 272–284. https://doi.org/10.1080/01614576.1993.11074089
Gabriel, M. T., Critelli, J. W., & Ee, J. S. (1994). Narcissistic illusions in self‐evaluations of intelligence and attractiveness. Journal of Personality, 62(1), 143–155. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1994.tb00798.x
Geukes, K., Mesagno, C., Hanrahan, S. J., & Kellmann, M. (2013). Activation of self-focus and self-presentation traits under private, mixed, and public pressure. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 35(1), 50–59. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.35.1.50
Hart, C. M., Ritchie, T. D., Hepper, E. G., & Gebauer, J. E. (2015). The Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding Short Form (BIDR-16). SAGE Open, 5(4), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015621113
Hays, K., Thomas, O., Maynard, I., & Bawden, M. (2009). The role of confidence in world-class sport performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27(11), 1185–1199. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410903089798
John, O. P., & Robins, R. W. (1994). Accuracy and bias in self-perception: Individual differences in self-enhancement and the role of narcissism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(1), 206-219. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.66.1.206
Jonason, P. K., Wee, S., Li, N. P., & Jackson, C. (2014). Occupational niches and the Dark Triad traits. Personality and Individual Differences, 69, 119–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.05.024
Kohut, H. (1972). Thoughts on narcissism and narcissistic rage. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 27(1), 360–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/00797308.1972.11822721
Krizan, Z., & Johar, O. (2015). Narcissistic rage revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108(5), 784–801. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000013
Kukla, A. (1972). Foundations of an attributional theory of performance. Psychological Review, 79(6), 454. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0033494
Kukla, A. (1974). Performance as a function of resultant achievement motivation (perceived ability) and perceived difficulty. Journal of Research in Personality, 7(4), 374–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(74)90059-2
Lannin, D. G., Guyll, M., Krizan, Z., Madon, S., & Cornish, M. (2014). When are grandiose and vulnerable narcissists least helpful? Personality and Individual Differences, 56, 127–132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.08.035
Lines, G. (2001). Villains, fools or heroes? Sports stars as role models for young people. Leisure Studies, 20(4), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/02614360110094661
Martin, T. G., Suh, Y. I., Williams, A. S., Locey, J., Ramirez, J., & Alea, M. (2016). Comparative Analysis of Female and Male Coverage on ESPN’s SportsCenter. 4(1), 14-22.
McCray, K. L. (2015). Intercollegiate Athletes and Sexual Violence: A Review of Literature and Recommendations for Future Study. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 16(4), 438–443. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838014537907
Meyer, W.U. (1987). Perceived ability and achievement-related behavior. In F. Halisch & J. Kuhl (Eds.), Motivation, intention, and volition (pp. 73–86). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
Miller, J. D., Widiger, T. A., & Campbell, W. K. (2010). Narcissistic personality disorder and the DSM-V. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119(4), 640–649. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019529
Parke, C. S. (2013). Module 5: Identifying and Addressing Outliers. Essential First Steps to Data Analysis: Scenario-Based Examples Using SPSS, 81–102.
Paulhus, D. L. (1998). Paulhus deception scales (PDS): The balanced inventory of desirable responding-7: User’s manual. North Tanawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
Piff, P. K. (2014). Wealth and the inflated self: Class, entitlement, and narcissism. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 40(1), 34–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213501699
Pincus, A. L., Ansell, E. B., Pimentel, C. A., Cain, N. M., Wright, A. G., & Levy, K. N. (2009). Initial construction and validation of the Pathological Narcissism Inventory. Psychological Assessment, 21(3), 365-379. doi: 10.1037/a0016530
Raskin, R., & Hall, C. S. (1981). The Narcissistic Personality Inventory: Alternative form reliability and further evidence of construct validity. Journal of Personality Assessment, 45(2), 159–162. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4502_10
Ronningstam, E. (2009). Narcissistic personality disorder: Facing DSM-V. Psychiatric Annals, 39(3), 111-121. http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20090301-09
Rosen, S., & Sanderson, A. (2001). Labour Markets in Professional Sports. The Economic Journal, 111(469), 47–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00598
Sage, G. H., Eitzen, D. S., & Beal, B. (2018). Sociology of North American Sport (11 edition). New York: Oxford University Press.
Sanna, L. J. (1992). Self-efficacy theory: Implications for social facilitation and social loafing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(5), 774-786. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.62.5.774.
Schoenleber, M., Roche, M. J., Wetzel, E., Pincus, A. L., & Roberts, B. W. (2015). Development of a brief version of the Pathological Narcissism Inventory. Psychological Assessment, 27(4), 1520–1526. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000158
Shaw, S., & Amis, J. (2001). Image and investment: Sponsorship and women’s sport. Journal of Sport Management, 15(3), 219–246. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.15.3.219
Silva, J. M. (1983). The Perceived Legitimacy of Rule Violating Behavior in Sport. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 5(4), 438-448. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsp.5.4.438
Sønderlund, A. L., O’Brien, K., Kremer, P., Rowland, B., De Groot, F., Staiger, P., … Miller, P. G. (2014). The association between sports participation, alcohol use and aggression and violence: A systematic review. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 17(1), 2–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2013.03.011
Trope, Y. (1979). Uncertainty-reducing properties of achievement tasks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(9), 1505-1518. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.9.1505
Vealey, R. S. (2009). Confidence in sport. Sport Psychology, 1, 43–52.
Wallace, H. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2002). The performance of narcissists rises and falls with perceived opportunity for glory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(5), 819–834. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.5.819
Watson, P. J. (2005). Complexity of narcissism and a continuum of self-esteem regulation. Personality Disorders, 336–338.
Wink, P. (1991). Two faces of narcissism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(4), 590–597. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.4.590
Woodman, T., Roberts, R., Hardy, L., Callow, N., & Rogers, C. H. (2011). There Is an “I” in TEAM: Narcissism and Social Loafing. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 82(2), 285–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2011.10599756
Zeigler‐Hill, V., Clark, C. B., & Pickard, J. D. (2008). Narcissistic Subtypes and Contingent Self-Esteem: Do All Narcissists Base Their Self-Esteem on the Same Domains? Journal of Personality, 76(4), 753–774. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00503.x
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