The Role of Perceived Social Support and Athletic Identity on College Female Athletes' Burnout
Keywords:
athletic identity, social support, athlete burnoutAbstract
While various athlete burnout models exist (e.g., Coakley 1992, Silva, 1990), more recent integrated burnout models (e.g., Gustafsson, Kenttä, & Hassmén, 2011) propose that individual difference constructs like athletic identity and socio-psychological constructs like social support, which are not directly linked to stress, may be correlates of athlete burnout (e.g., Martin & Horn, 2013; Pacewicz, Mellano, & Smith, 2019). While these two constructs have been studied separately, their combined influence on burnout has not been examined. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine whether female college student-athletes’ burnout could be predicted by their perceived social support and athletic identity. Female NCAA Division II college athletes (N=91; M age =19.27, SD=1.19) were assessed on their self-reported average weekly sport training hours, perceived social support (Perceived Available Social Support in Sport Questionnaire), athletic identity (Athletic Identity Measurement Scale), and athlete burnout (Athlete Burnout Questionnaire). Multiple regression analyses on burnout dimensions showed that athletic identity exclusivity was a significant negative predictor of global burnout, reduced sense of accomplishment, and sport devaluation. Perceived esteem support was also a negative predictor of global burnout and reduced sense of accomplishment. Finally, self-reported average weekly training hours predicted global burnout, emotional/physical exhaustion, and sport devaluation. Results suggest athletic identity exclusivity may not be a negative factor in burnout and that additional athlete burnout research examining athletic identity as well as type and source of athlete social support is warranted.
References
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Brewer, B.W., & Cornelius, A.E. (2001). Norms and factorial invariance of the Athletic Identity Measurements Scale. Academic Athletic Journal, 15, 103-113.
Brewer, B.W., Van Raalte, J., & Linder, D. (1993). Athletic identity: Hercules’ muscles or Achilles heel? International Journal of Sport Psychology, 24(2), 237-254.
Coakley, J. (1992). Burnout among adolescent athletes: A personal failure or social problem? Sociology of Sport Journal, 9, 271-285.
Cohen, S., Gottlieb, B.H., & Underwood, L.G. (2000). Social relationships and health. In S. Cohen, L.G. Underwood, & B.H. Gottlieb (Eds.), Social support measurement and intervention: A guide for health and social scientists (pp. 3-25). New York: Oxford University Press.
Cohen, S., & Wills, T.A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 310-357.
Cresswell, S.L., & Eklund, R.C. (2004). The athlete burnout syndrome: Possible early signs. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 7, 481-487.
Cresswell, S.L., & Eklund, R.C. (2006). Changes in athlete burnout over a thirty-week “rugby year.” Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 9 (1), 125-134.
Deci, E., & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.
DeFreese, J.D., & Smith, A.L. (2013). Areas of work life and the athlete burnout-engagement relationship. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 25(2), 180-196.
DeFreese, J.D., & Smith, A.L. (2013). Teammate social support, burnout, and self-determined motivation in collegiate athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 14, 258-265.
DeFreese, J.D., & Smith, A.L. (2014). Athlete social support, negative social interactions, and psychological health across a competitive sport season. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 36, 619-630.
Eklund, R.C., & Cresswell, S.L. (2007). Athlete burnout: In G. Tenenbaum & R.C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (3rd Ed., pp. 621-641), New York, NY: Wiley.
Freeman, P., Coffee, P., & Rees, T. (2011). The PASS-Q: The perceived available support in sport questionnaire. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 33, 54-74.
Gabana, N.T., Steinfeldt, J.A., Wong, Y.J., & Chung, Y.B. (2017). Gratitude, burnout, and sport satisfaction among college student-athletes: The mediating role of perceived social support. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 11, 14-33.
Goodger, K., Gorely, T., Lavallee, D., & Harwood, C. (2007). Symptoms and consequences associated with three dimensions of burnout in junior tennis players. The Sport Psychologist, 21, 127-151.
Goodger, K., & Kenttä, G. (2012). Professional practice issues in athlete burnout. In S. Hanton & S.D. Mellalieu (Eds.), Professional practice issues in sports psychology (pp. 133-164) New York, NY: Routledge.
Gould, D., & Diffenbach, K. (2002). Overtraining, recovery, and burnout in sport. In M. Kellman (Ed.), Enhancing Recovery: Preventing underperformance in athletes (pp. 25- 35). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Gould, D., Tuffey, S., Udry, E., Loehr, J. (1996). Burnout in competitive junior tennis players I: A quantitative analysis. The Sport Psychologist, 10, 322-340.
Gould, D., Tuffey, S., Udry, E., & Loehr, J. (1997). Burnout in competitive junior tennis players: III. Individual differences in the burnout experience. The Sport Psychologist, 11 (3), 257-276.
Gould, D, & Whitley, M. (2009). Sources and consequences of athletic burnout among college athletes. Journal of Intercollegiate Sports, 2(1), 16-30
Gustafsson, H., Hassmén, P., Kenttä, G., & Johansson, M. (2008). A qualitative analysis of burnout in elite Swedish athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9(6), 800-816.
Gustafsson, H., Kenttä, G., & Hassmén, P. (2011). Athlete burnout: An integrated model and future research directions. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 4(1), 3-24.
Gustafsson, H., Kenttä, G., Hassmén, P., & Lundqvist, C. (2007). Prevalence of burnout in competitive adolescent athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 21, 21-37.
Gustafsson, H., Kenttä, G., Hassmén, P., Lundqvist, C., & Durand-Bush, N. (2007). The process of burnout: A multiple case study of three elite endurance athletes. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 38, 388-416.
Holmberg, P.M., & Sheridan, D.A. (2013). Self-determined motivation as a predictor of burnout among college athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 27, 177-187.
Kelley, B.C., Eklund, R.C., & Ritter-Taylor, M. (1999). Stress and burnout among collegiate tennis coaches. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 21, 113-130.
Lemyre, P.N., Hall, H.K., & Roberts, G.C. (2008). A social cognitive approach to burnout in elite athletes. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 18, 221-234.
Lemyre, P.N., Treasure, D.C., & Roberts, G.C. (2006). Influence of variability in motivation and affect on elite athlete burnout susceptibility. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 28, 32-48.
Li, H.Y., & Andersen, M.B. (2008). Athletic identity in China: Examining the AIMS in a Hong Kong sample. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6(2), 176-188.
Lu, F.J.H., Lee, W.P., Chang, Y.K., Chou, C.C., Hsu, Y., Lin, J., & Gill, D.L. (2016). Interaction of athletes’ resilience and coaches’ social support on the stress-burnout relationship: A conjunctive moderation perspective. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22, 202-209.
Marcia, J.E. (1994). The empirical study of ego identity. In H.A. Bosma, T.L.G. Graafsma, H.D. Grotevant, & D.J. de Levita (Eds.) Identity and development: An interdisciplinary approach (pp. 67-80). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Marcia, J.E., Waterman, A.S., Matteson, D.R., Archer, S.L., & Orlofsky, J.L. (1993). Ego identity: A handbook for psychosocial research. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Martin, E.M., & Horn, T.S. (2013). The role of athletic identity and passion in predicting burnout in adolescent female athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 27, 338-348.
Maslach, C. (1993). Burnout: A multidimensional perspective. In W.B. Schaufeli, C. Maslach, & T. Marek, (Eds.), Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research (pp. 19-32). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.
Pacewicz, C.E., Mellano, K.T., & Smith, A.L. (2019). A meta-analytic review of the relationship between social constructs and athlete burnout. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 43, 155-164.
Raedeke, T.D. (1997). Is athlete burnout more than just stress? A sport commitment perspective. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 19, 396-417.
Raedeke, T.D., & Smith, A.L. (2001). Development and preliminary validation of an athlete burnout measure. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 23, 281-306.
Raedeke, T.D., & Smith, A.L. (2004). Coping resources and athlete burnout: An examination of stress mediated and moderation hypotheses. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 26, 525-541.
Raedeke, T.D., & Smith, A.L. (2009). The Athlete Burnout Questionnaire Manual. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
Rees, T., & Freeman, P. (2007). The effects of perceived and received support on self-confidence. Journal of Sport Sciences, 25, 1057-1065.
Rees, T., & Hardy, L. (2004). Matching social support with stressors: Effects on factors underlying performance in tennis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 5, 319-337.
Reis, H.T. (2001). Relationship experiences and emotional well-being. In C.D. Ryff & B.H. Singer (Eds.), Emotion, social relationships and health (pp. 57-86). New York: Oxford University Press.
Schaufeli, W.B., & Enzmann, D. (1998). Burnout: An overview of 25 years and theorizing. In J.A.M. Scharbracq & C.L. Cooper (Eds.), The handbook of work and health psychology (pp. 383-425). Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons.
Silva, J.M. (1990). An analysis of the training stress syndrome in competitive athletics. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 2, 5-20.
Smith, R.E. (1986). Toward a cognitive-affective model of athletic burnout. Journal of Sport Psychology, 8, 36-50.
Smith, A.L., Pacewicz, C.E., & Raedeke, T. (2019). Athlete burnout in sport and physical activity. In T.S. Horn, & A.L. Smith (Eds.). Advances in sport and exercise psychology (pp. 409-424). (4th Ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Uchino, B.N. (2004). Social support and physical health: Understanding the health consequences of relationships. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Udry, E., Gould, D., Bridges, D., & Tuffey, S. (1997). People helping people? Examining the social ties of athletes coping with burnout and injury stress. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 19, 368-395.
Verkooijen, K.T., Van Hove, P., & Dik, G. (2012). Athletic identity and well-being among young talented athletes who live at a Dutch elite sport center. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 24 (1), 106-113.
Wills, T.A., & Shinar, O. (2000). Measuring perceived and received social support. In S. Cohen, L.G. Underwood, & B.H. Gottlieb (Eds.), Social support measurement and intervention: A guide for health and social scientists (pp. 86-135). New York: Oxford University Press.
Brewer, B.W., & Cornelius, A.E. (2001). Norms and factorial invariance of the Athletic Identity Measurements Scale. Academic Athletic Journal, 15, 103-113.
Brewer, B.W., Van Raalte, J., & Linder, D. (1993). Athletic identity: Hercules’ muscles or Achilles heel? International Journal of Sport Psychology, 24(2), 237-254.
Coakley, J. (1992). Burnout among adolescent athletes: A personal failure or social problem? Sociology of Sport Journal, 9, 271-285.
Cohen, S., Gottlieb, B.H., & Underwood, L.G. (2000). Social relationships and health. In S. Cohen, L.G. Underwood, & B.H. Gottlieb (Eds.), Social support measurement and intervention: A guide for health and social scientists (pp. 3-25). New York: Oxford University Press.
Cohen, S., & Wills, T.A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 310-357.
Cresswell, S.L., & Eklund, R.C. (2004). The athlete burnout syndrome: Possible early signs. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 7, 481-487.
Cresswell, S.L., & Eklund, R.C. (2006). Changes in athlete burnout over a thirty-week “rugby year.” Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 9 (1), 125-134.
Deci, E., & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.
DeFreese, J.D., & Smith, A.L. (2013). Areas of work life and the athlete burnout-engagement relationship. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 25(2), 180-196.
DeFreese, J.D., & Smith, A.L. (2013). Teammate social support, burnout, and self-determined motivation in collegiate athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 14, 258-265.
DeFreese, J.D., & Smith, A.L. (2014). Athlete social support, negative social interactions, and psychological health across a competitive sport season. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 36, 619-630.
Eklund, R.C., & Cresswell, S.L. (2007). Athlete burnout: In G. Tenenbaum & R.C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (3rd Ed., pp. 621-641), New York, NY: Wiley.
Freeman, P., Coffee, P., & Rees, T. (2011). The PASS-Q: The perceived available support in sport questionnaire. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 33, 54-74.
Gabana, N.T., Steinfeldt, J.A., Wong, Y.J., & Chung, Y.B. (2017). Gratitude, burnout, and sport satisfaction among college student-athletes: The mediating role of perceived social support. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 11, 14-33.
Goodger, K., Gorely, T., Lavallee, D., & Harwood, C. (2007). Symptoms and consequences associated with three dimensions of burnout in junior tennis players. The Sport Psychologist, 21, 127-151.
Goodger, K., & Kenttä, G. (2012). Professional practice issues in athlete burnout. In S. Hanton & S.D. Mellalieu (Eds.), Professional practice issues in sports psychology (pp. 133-164) New York, NY: Routledge.
Gould, D., & Diffenbach, K. (2002). Overtraining, recovery, and burnout in sport. In M. Kellman (Ed.), Enhancing Recovery: Preventing underperformance in athletes (pp. 25- 35). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Gould, D., Tuffey, S., Udry, E., Loehr, J. (1996). Burnout in competitive junior tennis players I: A quantitative analysis. The Sport Psychologist, 10, 322-340.
Gould, D., Tuffey, S., Udry, E., & Loehr, J. (1997). Burnout in competitive junior tennis players: III. Individual differences in the burnout experience. The Sport Psychologist, 11 (3), 257-276.
Gould, D, & Whitley, M. (2009). Sources and consequences of athletic burnout among college athletes. Journal of Intercollegiate Sports, 2(1), 16-30
Gustafsson, H., Hassmén, P., Kenttä, G., & Johansson, M. (2008). A qualitative analysis of burnout in elite Swedish athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9(6), 800-816.
Gustafsson, H., Kenttä, G., & Hassmén, P. (2011). Athlete burnout: An integrated model and future research directions. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 4(1), 3-24.
Gustafsson, H., Kenttä, G., Hassmén, P., & Lundqvist, C. (2007). Prevalence of burnout in competitive adolescent athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 21, 21-37.
Gustafsson, H., Kenttä, G., Hassmén, P., Lundqvist, C., & Durand-Bush, N. (2007). The process of burnout: A multiple case study of three elite endurance athletes. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 38, 388-416.
Holmberg, P.M., & Sheridan, D.A. (2013). Self-determined motivation as a predictor of burnout among college athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 27, 177-187.
Kelley, B.C., Eklund, R.C., & Ritter-Taylor, M. (1999). Stress and burnout among collegiate tennis coaches. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 21, 113-130.
Lemyre, P.N., Hall, H.K., & Roberts, G.C. (2008). A social cognitive approach to burnout in elite athletes. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 18, 221-234.
Lemyre, P.N., Treasure, D.C., & Roberts, G.C. (2006). Influence of variability in motivation and affect on elite athlete burnout susceptibility. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 28, 32-48.
Li, H.Y., & Andersen, M.B. (2008). Athletic identity in China: Examining the AIMS in a Hong Kong sample. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6(2), 176-188.
Lu, F.J.H., Lee, W.P., Chang, Y.K., Chou, C.C., Hsu, Y., Lin, J., & Gill, D.L. (2016). Interaction of athletes’ resilience and coaches’ social support on the stress-burnout relationship: A conjunctive moderation perspective. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22, 202-209.
Marcia, J.E. (1994). The empirical study of ego identity. In H.A. Bosma, T.L.G. Graafsma, H.D. Grotevant, & D.J. de Levita (Eds.) Identity and development: An interdisciplinary approach (pp. 67-80). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Marcia, J.E., Waterman, A.S., Matteson, D.R., Archer, S.L., & Orlofsky, J.L. (1993). Ego identity: A handbook for psychosocial research. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Martin, E.M., & Horn, T.S. (2013). The role of athletic identity and passion in predicting burnout in adolescent female athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 27, 338-348.
Maslach, C. (1993). Burnout: A multidimensional perspective. In W.B. Schaufeli, C. Maslach, & T. Marek, (Eds.), Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research (pp. 19-32). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.
Pacewicz, C.E., Mellano, K.T., & Smith, A.L. (2019). A meta-analytic review of the relationship between social constructs and athlete burnout. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 43, 155-164.
Raedeke, T.D. (1997). Is athlete burnout more than just stress? A sport commitment perspective. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 19, 396-417.
Raedeke, T.D., & Smith, A.L. (2001). Development and preliminary validation of an athlete burnout measure. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 23, 281-306.
Raedeke, T.D., & Smith, A.L. (2004). Coping resources and athlete burnout: An examination of stress mediated and moderation hypotheses. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 26, 525-541.
Raedeke, T.D., & Smith, A.L. (2009). The Athlete Burnout Questionnaire Manual. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
Rees, T., & Freeman, P. (2007). The effects of perceived and received support on self-confidence. Journal of Sport Sciences, 25, 1057-1065.
Rees, T., & Hardy, L. (2004). Matching social support with stressors: Effects on factors underlying performance in tennis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 5, 319-337.
Reis, H.T. (2001). Relationship experiences and emotional well-being. In C.D. Ryff & B.H. Singer (Eds.), Emotion, social relationships and health (pp. 57-86). New York: Oxford University Press.
Schaufeli, W.B., & Enzmann, D. (1998). Burnout: An overview of 25 years and theorizing. In J.A.M. Scharbracq & C.L. Cooper (Eds.), The handbook of work and health psychology (pp. 383-425). Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons.
Silva, J.M. (1990). An analysis of the training stress syndrome in competitive athletics. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 2, 5-20.
Smith, R.E. (1986). Toward a cognitive-affective model of athletic burnout. Journal of Sport Psychology, 8, 36-50.
Smith, A.L., Pacewicz, C.E., & Raedeke, T. (2019). Athlete burnout in sport and physical activity. In T.S. Horn, & A.L. Smith (Eds.). Advances in sport and exercise psychology (pp. 409-424). (4th Ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Uchino, B.N. (2004). Social support and physical health: Understanding the health consequences of relationships. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Udry, E., Gould, D., Bridges, D., & Tuffey, S. (1997). People helping people? Examining the social ties of athletes coping with burnout and injury stress. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 19, 368-395.
Verkooijen, K.T., Van Hove, P., & Dik, G. (2012). Athletic identity and well-being among young talented athletes who live at a Dutch elite sport center. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 24 (1), 106-113.
Wills, T.A., & Shinar, O. (2000). Measuring perceived and received social support. In S. Cohen, L.G. Underwood, & B.H. Gottlieb (Eds.), Social support measurement and intervention: A guide for health and social scientists (pp. 86-135). New York: Oxford University Press.
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2022-02-13
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