Psychological Predictors of Injury in Division III Collegiate Student-Athletes
Keywords:
Sport Injury, Prevention, Psychology, HealthAbstract
Previous researchers have explored psychological constructs that can predict sport injuries, which has resulted in the development of injury prediction models. This study examined five psychological variables (life stress, social support, coping resources, trait anxiety, and hardiness), that have previously been reported to predict injury in collegiate athletes at the Division I level, in an NCAA Division III population. Male and female participants (n = 125) from six Division III sport teams completed surveys measuring each variable, and answered demographic questions of gender, sport type, year in school, and history of previous injury. A logistic regression model was computed with the psychological and demographic variables serving as predictors, and a dichotomous dependent variable of injury occurrence. Three predictor variables demonstrated significant relationships with injury occurrence: sport type, previous injury, and coping resources. Based on the mediocre strength of the model, it was concluded that the injuries of Division III student-athletes may not be predicted by psychological variables to the same degree as Division I student-athletes. It may be that Division III student-athletes respond differently to factors of life stress, social support, hardiness, or trait anxiety compared to Division I counterparts. The emergence of coping resources as a significant predictor of injury in Division III student-athletes warrants further investigation for its injury prevention potential. Further research exploring the potential influence of these psychological predictors on injury frequency at the Division III level is needed to determine if Division III student-athletes’ injuries can be predicted in a similar manner to Division I.
References
Andersen, M. B., & Williams, J. M. (1988). A model of stress and athletic injury: Prediction and prevention. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10, 294–306. doi: 10.1123/jsep.10.3.294
Andersen, M. B., & Williams, J. M. (1999). Athletic injury, psychosocial factors and perceptual changes during stress. Journal of Sports Sciences, 17(9), 735–41. doi: 10.1080/026404199365597
Bartone, P. T. (2007). Test-retest reliability of the Dispositional Resilience Scale-15, a brief hardiness scale. Psychological Reports, 101(3), 943–944. doi: 10.2466/pr0.101.3.943-944
Carver, C. S. (1997). You want to measure coping but your protocol’s too long: Consider the Brief COPE. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4(1), 92–100. doi: 10.1207/s15327558ijbm0401_6
Dallinga, J. M., Benjaminse, A., & Leinmink, K. A. (2012). Which screening tools can predict injury to the lower extremities in team sports?: A systematic review. Sports Medicine, 42(9), 791–815. doi: 10.1007/bf03262295
Devantier, C. (2011). Psychological predictors of injury among professional soccer players. Sport Science Review, 20(5), 25–56. doi: 10.2478/v10237-011-0062-3
Emery, C. A., Meeuwisse, W. H., & Hartmann, S. E. (2005). Evaluation of risk factors for injury in adolescent soccer: Implementation and validation of an injury surveillance system. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 33, 1882-1891. doi: 10.1177/0363546505279576
Escolas, S. M., Pitts, B. L., Safer, M. A., & Bartone, P. T. (2013). The protective value of hardiness on military posttraumatic stress symptoms. Military Psychology, 25(2), 116–123. doi: 10.1037/h0094953
Fair, R. C., & Champa, C. (2017). Estimated costs of contact in college and high school male sports. Cowles Foundation Discussion Paper No. 2101R. Retrieved from https://ssrn.com/abstract=3050026
Green, G. A., Uryasz, F. D., Petr, T. A., & Bray, C. D. (2001). NCAA study of substance use and abuse habits of college student-athletes. Clincal Journal of Sport Medicine, 11, 51-56. doi: 10.1097/00042752-200101000-00009
Griffith, K. A., & Johnson, K. A. (2002). Athletic identity and life roles of Division I and Division III collegiate athletes. University of Wisconsin-La Crosse Journal of Undergraduate Research, 5, 225-232.
Hackfort, D., & Kleinert, J. (2007). Research on sport injury development: Former and future approaches from an action theory perspective. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 5, 324-339. doi: 10.1080/1612197x.2007.9671839
Hanson, S. J., McCullagh, P., & Tonymon, P. (1992). The relationship of personality characteristics, life stress, and coping resources to athletic injury. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 14(3), 262–272. doi: 10.1123/jsep.14.3.262
Hardy, C. J., Richman, J. M., & Rosenfeld, L. B. (1991). The role of social support in the life stress/injury relationship. The Sport Psychologist, 5(2), 128–139. doi: 10.1123/tsp.5.2.128
Hootman, J. M., Dick, R., & Agel, J. (2007). Epidemiology of collegiate injuries for 15 sports: Summary and recommendations for injury prevention initiatives. Journal of Athletic Training, 42(2), 311–319.
Ivarsson, A., & Johnson, U. (2010). Psychological factors as predictors of injuries among senior soccer players. A prospective study. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 9(2), 347–352.
Ivarsson, A., Johnson, U., Andersen, M. B., Tranaeus, U., Stenling, A., & Lindwall, M. (2017). Psychosocial factors and sport injuries: Meta-analyses for prediction and prevention. Sports Medicine, 47(2), 353-365. doi: 10.1007/s40279-016-0578-x
Ivarsson, A., Johnson, U., & Podlog, L. (2013). Psychological predictors of injury occurrence: A prospective investigation of professional Swedish soccer players. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, 22(1), 19–26. doi: 10.1123/jsr.22.1.19
Jackson, D. W., Jarrett, H., Bailey, D., Kausek, J., & Swanson, J. (1978). Injury prediction in the young athlete: A preliminary report. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 6(1), 6–14. doi: 10.1177/036354657800600103
Johnson, U. (2007). Psychosocial antecedents of sport injury, prevention, and intervention: An overview of theoretical approaches and empirical findings. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 5(4), 352–369. doi: 10.1080/1612197x.2007.9671841
Johnson, U., & Ivarsson, A. (2011). Psychological predictors of sport injuries among junior soccer players. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 21(1), 129–136. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01057.x
Johnson, U., Tranaeus, U., & Ivarsson, A. (2014). Current status and future challenges in psychological research of sport injury prediction and prevention. Revista de Psicologia Del Deporte, 23(2), 401-409.
Kiesel, K. B., Butler, R. J., & Plisky, P. J. (2014). Prediction of injury by limited and asymmetrical fundamental movement patterns in american football players. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, 23(2), 88–94. doi: 10.1123/jsr.2012-0130
Kujala, U. M., Orava, S., Parkkari, J., Kaprio, J., & Sarna, S. (2003). Sports career-related musculoskeletal injuries: Long-term health effects on former athletes. Sports Medicine, 33(12), 869–875. doi: 10.2165/00007256-200333120-00001
Lapchick, R., & Baker, D. (2016). The 2015 racial and gender report card: College sport. Institute for Diversity and Ethics in Sport, University of Central Florida. Retrieved from http://nebula.wsimg.com/5050ddee56f2fcc884660e4a03297317?AccessKeyId=DAC3A56D8FB782449D2A&disposition=0&alloworigin=1
Lavallée, L., & Flint, F. (1996). The relationship of stress, competitive anxiety, mood state, and social support to athletic injury. Journal of Athletic Training, 31(4), 296–299.
McKay, C., Campbell, T., Meeuwisse, W., & Emery, C. (2013). The role of psychological risk factors for injury in elite youth ice hockey. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 23, 216-221. doi: 10.1097/jsm.0b013e31826a86c9
Meyer, B. B. (1990). From idealism to actualization: The academic performance of female collegiate athletes. Sociology of Sport Journal, 7(1), 44–57. doi: 10.1123/ssj.7.1.44
Miller, P. S., & Kerr, G. (2002). The athletic, academic and social experiences of intercollegiate student athletes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 25(4), 346–367.
National Collegiate Athletic Association. (n.d.a). NCAA Division I. Retrieved from: http://www.ncaa.org/about?division=d1
National Collegiate Athletic Association. (n.d.b). NCAA Division III. Retrieved from: http://www.ncaa.org/about?division=d3
National Collegiate Athletic Association. (2014). NCAA student-athlete substance use study: Executive summary august 2014. Retrieved from: http://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/research/ncaa-student-athlete-substance-use-study-executive-summary-august-2014
Nicholls, A. R., Polman, R., Levy, A. R., Taylor, J., & Cobley, S. (2007). Stresors, coping, and coping effectiveness: Gender, type of sport, and skill differences. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, 1521-1530. doi: 10.1080/02640410701230479
Passer, M. W., & Seese, M. D. (1983). Life stress and athletic injury: Examination of positive versus negative events and three moderator variables. Journal of Human Stress, 9(4), 11–16. doi: 10.1080/0097840x.1983.9935025
Petrie, T. A. (1992). Psychosocial antecedents of athletic injury: The effects of life stress and social support on female collegiate gymnasts. Behavioral Medicine, 18(3), 127–138. doi: 10.1080/08964289.1992.9936963
Petrie, T. A. (1993). Coping skills, competitive trait anxiety, and playing status: Moderating effects on the life stress-injury relationship. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 15(3), 261–274. doi: 10.1123/jsep.15.3.261
Petrie, T. A., Deiters, J., & Harmison, R. J. (2014). Mental toughness, social support, and athletic identity: Moderators of the life stress–injury relationship in collegiate football players. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 3(1), 13–27. doi: 10.1037/a0032698
Ristolainen, L., Kettunen, J. A., Kujala, U. M., & Heinonen, A. (2012). Sport injuries as the main cause of sport career termination among Finnish top-level athletes. European Journal of Sport Science, 12(3), 274–282. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2011.566365
Rogers, T., & Landers, D. (2005). Mediating effects of peripheral vision in the life event stress/athletic injury relationship. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 27(3), 271–288. doi: 10.1123/jsep.27.3.271
Ryan, J., DeBurca, N., & Mc Creesh, K. (2014). Risk factors for groin/hip injuries in field-based sports: A systematic review. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 48(14), 1089–1096. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2013-092263
Sack, A. L., & Thiel, R. (1985). College basketball and role conflict: A national survey. Sociology of Sport Journal, 2(3), 195–209. doi:10.1123/ssj.2.3.195
Sarason, I. G., Levine, H. M., Basham, R. B., & Sarason, B. R. (1983). Assessing social support: The social support questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 127–139. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.127
Smith, A. (1996). Psychological impact of injuries in athletes. Sports Medicine, 22(6), 391–405. doi:10.2165/00007256-199622060-00006
Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L., Cumming, S. P., & Grossbard, J. R. (2006). Measurement of multidimensional sport performance trait anxiety in children and adults: The Sport Anxiety Scale-2. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 28, 479–501. doi:10.1123/jsep.28.4.479
Sturm, J. E., Feltz, D. L., & Gilson, T. A. (2011). A comparison of athlete and student identity for Division I and Division III athletes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 34(3), 295–306.
Wadey, R., Evans, L., Hanton, S., & Neil, R. (2012a). An examination of hardiness throughout the sport injury process. British Journal of Health Psychology, 17(1), 103–128. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8287.2011.02025.x
Wadey, R., Evans, L., Hanton, S., & Neil, R. (2012b). An examination of hardiness throughout the sport-injury process: A qualitative follow-up study. British Journal of Health Psychology, 17(4), 872–893. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8287.2012.02084.x
Wiese-Bjornstal, D. M. (2010). Psychology and socioculture affect injury risk, response, and recovery in high-intensity athletes: A consensus statement. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20(2), 103–11. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01195.x
Wiese-Bjornstal, D. M. (2009). Sport injury and college athlete health across the lifespan. Journal of Intercollegiate Sport, 2(1), 64–80. doi:10.1123/jis.2.1.64
Williams, J. M., & Andersen, M. B. (1998). Psychosocial antecedents of sport injury: Review and critique of the stress and injury model. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 10(1), 5–25. doi: 10.1080/10413209808406375
Williams, J. M., & Andersen, M. B. (2007) Psychosocial antecedents of sport injury and interventions for risk reduction. In G. Tenenbaum, & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (pp. 379–403). New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.
Williams, J. M., Tonymon, P., & Andersen, M. B. (1991). The effects of stressors and coping resources on anxiety and peripheral narrowing. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 3(2), 126–141. doi:10.1080/10413209108406439
Williams, J. M., Tonymon, P., & Wadsworth, W. A. (1986). Relationship of life stress to injury in intercollegiate volleyball. Journal of Human Stress, 12(1), 38–4. doi:10.1080/0097840x.1986.9936765
Andersen, M. B., & Williams, J. M. (1999). Athletic injury, psychosocial factors and perceptual changes during stress. Journal of Sports Sciences, 17(9), 735–41. doi: 10.1080/026404199365597
Bartone, P. T. (2007). Test-retest reliability of the Dispositional Resilience Scale-15, a brief hardiness scale. Psychological Reports, 101(3), 943–944. doi: 10.2466/pr0.101.3.943-944
Carver, C. S. (1997). You want to measure coping but your protocol’s too long: Consider the Brief COPE. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4(1), 92–100. doi: 10.1207/s15327558ijbm0401_6
Dallinga, J. M., Benjaminse, A., & Leinmink, K. A. (2012). Which screening tools can predict injury to the lower extremities in team sports?: A systematic review. Sports Medicine, 42(9), 791–815. doi: 10.1007/bf03262295
Devantier, C. (2011). Psychological predictors of injury among professional soccer players. Sport Science Review, 20(5), 25–56. doi: 10.2478/v10237-011-0062-3
Emery, C. A., Meeuwisse, W. H., & Hartmann, S. E. (2005). Evaluation of risk factors for injury in adolescent soccer: Implementation and validation of an injury surveillance system. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 33, 1882-1891. doi: 10.1177/0363546505279576
Escolas, S. M., Pitts, B. L., Safer, M. A., & Bartone, P. T. (2013). The protective value of hardiness on military posttraumatic stress symptoms. Military Psychology, 25(2), 116–123. doi: 10.1037/h0094953
Fair, R. C., & Champa, C. (2017). Estimated costs of contact in college and high school male sports. Cowles Foundation Discussion Paper No. 2101R. Retrieved from https://ssrn.com/abstract=3050026
Green, G. A., Uryasz, F. D., Petr, T. A., & Bray, C. D. (2001). NCAA study of substance use and abuse habits of college student-athletes. Clincal Journal of Sport Medicine, 11, 51-56. doi: 10.1097/00042752-200101000-00009
Griffith, K. A., & Johnson, K. A. (2002). Athletic identity and life roles of Division I and Division III collegiate athletes. University of Wisconsin-La Crosse Journal of Undergraduate Research, 5, 225-232.
Hackfort, D., & Kleinert, J. (2007). Research on sport injury development: Former and future approaches from an action theory perspective. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 5, 324-339. doi: 10.1080/1612197x.2007.9671839
Hanson, S. J., McCullagh, P., & Tonymon, P. (1992). The relationship of personality characteristics, life stress, and coping resources to athletic injury. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 14(3), 262–272. doi: 10.1123/jsep.14.3.262
Hardy, C. J., Richman, J. M., & Rosenfeld, L. B. (1991). The role of social support in the life stress/injury relationship. The Sport Psychologist, 5(2), 128–139. doi: 10.1123/tsp.5.2.128
Hootman, J. M., Dick, R., & Agel, J. (2007). Epidemiology of collegiate injuries for 15 sports: Summary and recommendations for injury prevention initiatives. Journal of Athletic Training, 42(2), 311–319.
Ivarsson, A., & Johnson, U. (2010). Psychological factors as predictors of injuries among senior soccer players. A prospective study. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 9(2), 347–352.
Ivarsson, A., Johnson, U., Andersen, M. B., Tranaeus, U., Stenling, A., & Lindwall, M. (2017). Psychosocial factors and sport injuries: Meta-analyses for prediction and prevention. Sports Medicine, 47(2), 353-365. doi: 10.1007/s40279-016-0578-x
Ivarsson, A., Johnson, U., & Podlog, L. (2013). Psychological predictors of injury occurrence: A prospective investigation of professional Swedish soccer players. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, 22(1), 19–26. doi: 10.1123/jsr.22.1.19
Jackson, D. W., Jarrett, H., Bailey, D., Kausek, J., & Swanson, J. (1978). Injury prediction in the young athlete: A preliminary report. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 6(1), 6–14. doi: 10.1177/036354657800600103
Johnson, U. (2007). Psychosocial antecedents of sport injury, prevention, and intervention: An overview of theoretical approaches and empirical findings. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 5(4), 352–369. doi: 10.1080/1612197x.2007.9671841
Johnson, U., & Ivarsson, A. (2011). Psychological predictors of sport injuries among junior soccer players. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 21(1), 129–136. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01057.x
Johnson, U., Tranaeus, U., & Ivarsson, A. (2014). Current status and future challenges in psychological research of sport injury prediction and prevention. Revista de Psicologia Del Deporte, 23(2), 401-409.
Kiesel, K. B., Butler, R. J., & Plisky, P. J. (2014). Prediction of injury by limited and asymmetrical fundamental movement patterns in american football players. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, 23(2), 88–94. doi: 10.1123/jsr.2012-0130
Kujala, U. M., Orava, S., Parkkari, J., Kaprio, J., & Sarna, S. (2003). Sports career-related musculoskeletal injuries: Long-term health effects on former athletes. Sports Medicine, 33(12), 869–875. doi: 10.2165/00007256-200333120-00001
Lapchick, R., & Baker, D. (2016). The 2015 racial and gender report card: College sport. Institute for Diversity and Ethics in Sport, University of Central Florida. Retrieved from http://nebula.wsimg.com/5050ddee56f2fcc884660e4a03297317?AccessKeyId=DAC3A56D8FB782449D2A&disposition=0&alloworigin=1
Lavallée, L., & Flint, F. (1996). The relationship of stress, competitive anxiety, mood state, and social support to athletic injury. Journal of Athletic Training, 31(4), 296–299.
McKay, C., Campbell, T., Meeuwisse, W., & Emery, C. (2013). The role of psychological risk factors for injury in elite youth ice hockey. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 23, 216-221. doi: 10.1097/jsm.0b013e31826a86c9
Meyer, B. B. (1990). From idealism to actualization: The academic performance of female collegiate athletes. Sociology of Sport Journal, 7(1), 44–57. doi: 10.1123/ssj.7.1.44
Miller, P. S., & Kerr, G. (2002). The athletic, academic and social experiences of intercollegiate student athletes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 25(4), 346–367.
National Collegiate Athletic Association. (n.d.a). NCAA Division I. Retrieved from: http://www.ncaa.org/about?division=d1
National Collegiate Athletic Association. (n.d.b). NCAA Division III. Retrieved from: http://www.ncaa.org/about?division=d3
National Collegiate Athletic Association. (2014). NCAA student-athlete substance use study: Executive summary august 2014. Retrieved from: http://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/research/ncaa-student-athlete-substance-use-study-executive-summary-august-2014
Nicholls, A. R., Polman, R., Levy, A. R., Taylor, J., & Cobley, S. (2007). Stresors, coping, and coping effectiveness: Gender, type of sport, and skill differences. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, 1521-1530. doi: 10.1080/02640410701230479
Passer, M. W., & Seese, M. D. (1983). Life stress and athletic injury: Examination of positive versus negative events and three moderator variables. Journal of Human Stress, 9(4), 11–16. doi: 10.1080/0097840x.1983.9935025
Petrie, T. A. (1992). Psychosocial antecedents of athletic injury: The effects of life stress and social support on female collegiate gymnasts. Behavioral Medicine, 18(3), 127–138. doi: 10.1080/08964289.1992.9936963
Petrie, T. A. (1993). Coping skills, competitive trait anxiety, and playing status: Moderating effects on the life stress-injury relationship. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 15(3), 261–274. doi: 10.1123/jsep.15.3.261
Petrie, T. A., Deiters, J., & Harmison, R. J. (2014). Mental toughness, social support, and athletic identity: Moderators of the life stress–injury relationship in collegiate football players. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 3(1), 13–27. doi: 10.1037/a0032698
Ristolainen, L., Kettunen, J. A., Kujala, U. M., & Heinonen, A. (2012). Sport injuries as the main cause of sport career termination among Finnish top-level athletes. European Journal of Sport Science, 12(3), 274–282. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2011.566365
Rogers, T., & Landers, D. (2005). Mediating effects of peripheral vision in the life event stress/athletic injury relationship. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 27(3), 271–288. doi: 10.1123/jsep.27.3.271
Ryan, J., DeBurca, N., & Mc Creesh, K. (2014). Risk factors for groin/hip injuries in field-based sports: A systematic review. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 48(14), 1089–1096. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2013-092263
Sack, A. L., & Thiel, R. (1985). College basketball and role conflict: A national survey. Sociology of Sport Journal, 2(3), 195–209. doi:10.1123/ssj.2.3.195
Sarason, I. G., Levine, H. M., Basham, R. B., & Sarason, B. R. (1983). Assessing social support: The social support questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 127–139. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.127
Smith, A. (1996). Psychological impact of injuries in athletes. Sports Medicine, 22(6), 391–405. doi:10.2165/00007256-199622060-00006
Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L., Cumming, S. P., & Grossbard, J. R. (2006). Measurement of multidimensional sport performance trait anxiety in children and adults: The Sport Anxiety Scale-2. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 28, 479–501. doi:10.1123/jsep.28.4.479
Sturm, J. E., Feltz, D. L., & Gilson, T. A. (2011). A comparison of athlete and student identity for Division I and Division III athletes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 34(3), 295–306.
Wadey, R., Evans, L., Hanton, S., & Neil, R. (2012a). An examination of hardiness throughout the sport injury process. British Journal of Health Psychology, 17(1), 103–128. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8287.2011.02025.x
Wadey, R., Evans, L., Hanton, S., & Neil, R. (2012b). An examination of hardiness throughout the sport-injury process: A qualitative follow-up study. British Journal of Health Psychology, 17(4), 872–893. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8287.2012.02084.x
Wiese-Bjornstal, D. M. (2010). Psychology and socioculture affect injury risk, response, and recovery in high-intensity athletes: A consensus statement. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20(2), 103–11. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01195.x
Wiese-Bjornstal, D. M. (2009). Sport injury and college athlete health across the lifespan. Journal of Intercollegiate Sport, 2(1), 64–80. doi:10.1123/jis.2.1.64
Williams, J. M., & Andersen, M. B. (1998). Psychosocial antecedents of sport injury: Review and critique of the stress and injury model. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 10(1), 5–25. doi: 10.1080/10413209808406375
Williams, J. M., & Andersen, M. B. (2007) Psychosocial antecedents of sport injury and interventions for risk reduction. In G. Tenenbaum, & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (pp. 379–403). New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.
Williams, J. M., Tonymon, P., & Andersen, M. B. (1991). The effects of stressors and coping resources on anxiety and peripheral narrowing. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 3(2), 126–141. doi:10.1080/10413209108406439
Williams, J. M., Tonymon, P., & Wadsworth, W. A. (1986). Relationship of life stress to injury in intercollegiate volleyball. Journal of Human Stress, 12(1), 38–4. doi:10.1080/0097840x.1986.9936765
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